ENGLISH PORTFOLIO

BY

NAME                                    : SEPTI INDRAYANA

NIM                                        : E1A 011 054

STUDY PROGRAM              : BIOLOGY EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND SICIENCE

FACULTY OF TRAINING AND EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF MATARAM

2011

THE PAGE OF CERTIFICATION

This portofolio has certificated by the course lecturer on 4 January 2012

Lecturer,

Dr. H.A. Wahab Jufri, M.Sc.

NIP. 196212251987031001

SCORE

COURSE CONTRACTS

1.      Schedule                     : Every Tuesday → 09.20 – 11.00 → room A2.

2.      Students must not come to class later than 09.30.

3.      Students who wants to leave the class must ask permission to the lecturer.

4.      Student tasks: every individual must:

A.    Makes a translation and summary of an article aboutbiological topics as many as 3 articles from the hand book and 2 free biological articles from journal.

B.     Student must make a short presentation (10 minutes) about the task A.

C.     Every student must collects portfolio at the end of semester. The portfolio must contains the cours journals, task A, B and other parts of his/her written work during the course.

5.      Evaluation:

Final scores will be based on :

a.       Participation and portfolio      : 30%

b.      Mid-semester test                    : 30%

c.       Final exam test:                       : 40%

ACKNOWLADGEMENTS

            All praises just to our God which always save us, given healhty and change to me to finished this portfolio. And don’t forget shalawat and salam to our Rosul who bring  us from the darkness to the brightness one and also showed us true way of this life.

            This portfolio was undertaken while at biologi education, department of mathematics and science. The faculty of education teacher and training , Mataram university at semeter 1. I would like to thanks to Dr. Ahmad Wahab Jufri, M. Sc, my lecturer of English course, for this suggestion and correction on this portfolio and also for his leading or guidance during may study in semester 1. Special thanks to my beloved family for their valuable support and attention on my study. For making this portfolio better in the next, I really expect your critics and your suggestion.

            At the last, I hope this portfolio will bw accepted and may given more advantages for all of us.

                                                                                                            Mataram, 2011

           

                                                                                                                  Writer

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE PAGE OF CERTIFICATION ……………………………………………………. ii

COURSE CONTRACTS ……………………………………………………………..... iii

ACKNOWLADGEMENT ……………………………………………………………… iv

TABLE OF CONTENT  ………………………………………………………………… v

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL

1.      Journal 1 ………………………………………………………………………… 1

2.      Journal 2 ………………………………………………………………………… 2

3.      Journal 3 ………………………………………………………………………… 3

4.      Journal 4 ………………………………………………………………………… 4

5.      Journal 5 ………………………………………………………………………… 5

6.      Journal 6 ………………………………………………………………………… 6

7.      Journal 7 ………………………………………………………………………… 7

8.      Journal 8 ………………………………………………………………………… 8

9.      Journal 9 ………………………………………………………………………… 9

10.  Journal 10 ………………………………………………………………………. 10

11.  Journal 11 ………………………………………………………………………. 11

12.  Journal 12 ………………………………………………………………………. 12

13.  Journal 13 ………………………………………………………………………. 13

14.  Journal 14 ………………………………………………………………………. 14

15.  Journal 15 ………………………………………………………………………. 15

ARTICLES

1.      The Planarians ………………………………………………………………….. 16

2.      The Earthworms ………………………………………………………………… 20

3.      Sewage, Sludge and Scum ……………………………………………………… 25

4.      The Butterflies ………………………………………………………………….. 30

5.      The Rabbits ……………………………………………………………………..  35

TASKS

PART ONE …………………………………………………………………………….. 38

ENGLISH STRUCTURE

PART  TWO ……………………………………………………………………………. 45

READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY ENRICHNESS

PART 3 ………………………………………………………………………………… 48

ORGANISMS MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………....... 55

SELF EVALUATION …………………………………………………………………. 67

ENCLOSURE

SEL REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 1

On Tuesday, 6^th - September - 2011 is the first meeting of English for biology. But, the lecturer hasn’t gave us the materials for study. On the day, I and my friends were came late to the class because we were having breakfast in the canteen. Firstly, we were so scared because we thought the lecturer was angry to us. But actually, the lecturer didn’t angry to us because that is the first meeting (thanks, Sir). Beside that, the lecturer helped us for choose the candidats of our class structure. There are 9 candidats. Not only this, the lecturer also gave the modul for us to pothocopied.

v  Self  Evaluations

I will try better tnah before.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 2

On Tuesday, 13^th - September- 2011 is the 2^nd meeting of English for biology. On the day, lecturer  began  learning.  We studying the material in the modul about “English structure”. In there, lecturer reading contracts of study for us. After  that, lecturer asked some of us to read the some paragraph of the page 1 in the modul and shearching some of strange words. There is one of our friend asked to the lecturer about word “partly”, so the lecturer answer the question that the meaning of “partly” is “bagian”. Beside that, the lecturer also gave us the homework  about  “ formula {A}*HN”.  At the finally, lecturer asked us to writting a journal of English about the meeting on the last week and the meeting on the day.  The course journal gathered on the next meeting.  The contains of the journal are “how the condition of the class at learning English for Biology?”

v  Self Evaluation

I got new vocabulary, this is partly. The meaning of opartly is bagian. But the lecture said, sometimes it can be change based on the sentences.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 3

            Tuesday, September – 20^th  - 2011 is the third meeting of  English for Biology. On the day, we studied the materials about “Opsional Element 2 until Opsional Element 4”. Before lecturer explained the next materials, he asked us for read our tasks on the last week about  “Opsional Element 1” one by one of  us. When we had read our task, lecturer asked us for spelling each letter of the words and said another words with  initial of  the words.

            In the Opsional Element 2, lecturer gave the task for us. One by one of  us asked for written  an example of them. Such me, I had asked  for wrote an example about it. Then, I wrote the sentence “very dangerous red ant”. After that, lecturer asked me to explained it. But I was so nervous. And then, lecturer corrected my task, the word “ant become ants”. He said because the ants never live alone. At the finally, lecturer gave us the tasks about “Opsional Element  4”. Don’t forget also he asked us for maked the course journal for  the next week.

v  Self Evaluation

After I followed this lessons, I get the new information about NOUN, this is Ants. The lecturer said, we must wrote the Ants, because they are so many and not alone.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 4

On Tuesday, September -27^th - 2011  is the fourth meeting of English for biology. On the day, we had studied the materials about optional element 5 (noun) until optional element 6 (adjunct). Before we studied them, we had reviewed about our task at the last week. In there, the lecturer explained us about our course journal at the last week to. He corrected about the contain of our journal. He said, our journal was wrong. In the journal, we contained about what did we gave of the learning.

In the material about optional element 5, the lecturer had explained us about “noun”. The formula for the noun group, thus becomes “{Det} {Num} {{Adv} A}* {N} HN”. In the optional element 6, the lecturer explained about “Adjunct”. In the formula, we will represent this as {Adj}, then the formula become {Det} {Num} {{Adv} A}* {N} HN {Adj}*. In there, the lecturer asked us for wrote some example about it. On there, the lecturer was wrong wrote the word “Adjucnt”. And then, one of my friends (Dana) corrected the word “adjucnt” become “adjunct”. The lecturer so thanksgiving to him. The lecturer said that we use the objects of  biology for the examples, because we were biology education class. At the finally, lecturer asked us for retried our journal.

v  Self Evaluation

After I followed the lessons, I got a new knowladge about Adjunct. Adjunct give more information into the noun group. The example of Adjunct is “of”.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 5

            On Friday, Oktober – 7^th – 2011 is the fifth meeting of English for biology. We were studying about Final Word on Noun Group. Before we studied it, lecturer asked one of my friends, Dana to said in English the sentence “kita sudah mempelajari 6 formula”. but Dana didn’t understand about it, he explained his opinion about the all of formulas. Then, the lecturer said it “we have been studying English for week. We found 6 formulas for nouns”

            When we studied about Final Word on Noun Group, the lecturer asked some of my friends for read the paragraph. Not only it, the lecturer also asked some of us to spelt a word and each of alphabet must be said the other word. Beside that, lecturer asked bq Wiyan to said in English the sentence “ada 65 mahasiswa di kelas biologi”. And she also spelt each alphabet.

            In there, the lecturer have been told us about his experience when he was studied in Perth, Australia. i like when he was told us, because I wanna be him. I was motivated because it.

Finally, lecturer asked us for write the word tree. And the all of the words as good as about biological objects, because we were the biological class. 

v  Self Evaluation

Based word tree which I did, I got more new vocabularies.

 SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 6

On Friday, October-14^th-2011 is the sixth meeting of English for biology. On the day, we have been studied the lesson 2 about the material’ The Verb’. Before we studied it, the lecturer asked some of us to presented our task about the words root. There are some of our friends who had presented their task, Desi, Suspia, Dana, Malika, Amelia, Lina, Irma, Imam, Winangun, and the last is Yuli Febrianti. In the moment, the lecturer suggested us that we didn’t only write the words of the dictionary, but we have to know what the meaning of words.

In the next material, the lecturer asked us for read the sentences of the paragraphs. The lecturer also asked us for wrote the example of  the difference between Transitive and Intransitive verbs. And i wrote the sentences of the transitive verb is ‘I read a magazine’ and the example of intransitive verb is ‘I read in the room. After that, the lecturer asked some of us to read our task. After thet the lecturer explained us the meaning of word ‘apart’ is ‘kecuali’. And the conclusion of the learning is ‘only the transitive verbs are can be the passive voice’. In the last materials the lecturer won’t to explain us about the Auxiliaries and Modals because they have been studied in senior high school (SMA).

v  Self Evaluatin

Based on the statements above, I can be more understand about the materials, especially the use of the verb, modals, etc. before we studied about the verb, I difficult to different between the verb and to be.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 7

            On Tuesday, October-18^th-2011 is the seventh meeting of English for Biology. On the day, we studied about Adverbs. Before we studied, the lecturer asked my friend named Imam Muslim to translated the sentence “satu fungsi adverb dalam kelompok kata kerja”. Then Lina asked by lecturer, mention 1 function of Averb? Lina answered the function of Adverb is to give more informations about Adjective. Then the lecturer asked Nikmah, what is Adjective? And then Nikmah answered, Adjective give more informations about the Head Noun.

            Adverb can be added to the verb group to provide exta information about the Main Verbs. There are many kinds of Adverbs which we can use in verb group. These are:

1.       Adverbs of Frequncy

2.      Adverbs of Manner

In the Adverbs of frequency, the lecturer asked 3 of my friends to make an example of adverbs of frequency. They are Ifty, Sarifa and Camalia. Then one of them answered, I always go to campus by motorcycle. Then, the lecturer asked Irmayani to translate the sentence “pohon Akasia yang hijau dan tinggi itu ditanam oleh pak Dekan FKIP tahun 2000”. And Irma wrote in the whiteboard “the tall green Akasia tree is planted by mr. dekan of FKIP in year 2000”. Then we corrected it become “the high/tall green Akasia tree was planted by Dekan FKIP in year 2000”. The other sentences similar with this are, those two young ladies are students of biological class, and the young handsome man is my friend named Winangun.

·         Self evaluation

Based on the facts  above, I think that I can be know how persents of frequency which can be illustrated. Now, I can be difference between word ‘very, often,etc’.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 8

          At the last meeting, any something which different class at the time. Why? Because for the first time in the English class if any students came late, the lecturer closed the door and didn’t allowed them to joint with us in the class. And why I said it the first time? Because, sometime ago at the same meeting the lecturer never did it.

          Before we strudied, the lecturer devide us became some club,one club include 2-3 students. It method so fun for me, because it make us take easy in the studied. It the first time we discuss about text, that is about planarian.

         The lecturer asksed one by one of the group. I and my friend became the second club whom lecturer ask. Fortunately, my group got simple question from the lecturer. Altought I understood the text enough. I felt good to discuss the text with my partner or all of people in the class. I felt confidence to spoke up if the lecturer asked to us, it cause I could understood the text with easy.

         But any massage from the lecturer which make me awake. The lecturer said that rule which the students of  high school aplication more good than us. Because we couldn’t arranged the sit method like if we high school. Not only me, all of my friends also did like me. May be they also though as me though.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 9

              At the last meeting, the lecturer devided us become some group, one group include two students. He asked us to make resume with own words. At the time, we discuss about animal’s life. My group got “how do snake move?”. My patner is Nurul Faidah. We work together but we have trouble with this task. Because we not yet understand and fortunately the lecturer came to us and gived us explanation.

            Some minutes later, the lecturer ask each group to read our task. I felt so nervous. But, my group didn’t ask to presentation.

            One by one the group read the task, and if the group for butterfly read the task, the lecturer said, “…be a butterfly, I will help you if you look hard work …”. From that I got inspiration, we must like butterfly.

Thanks a lot!!!

SELF  REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 10

At the meeting  the lecturer came late. But if he was came, he apologize to us and gave a reason why he came late. After that the lecturer asked to translated a reading in the hand book as tittle “sewage, sludge and scum”, we answered some question after the reading.

I have less problem to translate the reading. Honestly, many new words I met and I didn’t knew what is it mean. Beside that, I couldn’t answered the question after the reading. The words which used were so hard for me. May be  only for me I didn’t knew  how about the other. I also forgot brought my dictionary at the day.

But I interested with method that the lecturer have use. If the lecturer asked a student, after the student answered the lecturer asked again to him. The lecturer wanted to knew where the student got the answer.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 11

It’s the first time we have class in the afternoon. Why? Because it’s the first time our lecturer changed. Now, our new lecturer is Mr. Imam Bachtiar.

Mr. Imam introduced himself to us. I’m so nervous, because the first time I looked him and I  have a mistake. At the class  my three friends and I came late. I thought  Mr. Imam would angry with us, but I’m wrong. He let us to join with his class (thanks, Sir). I remembered when the first time I come late in the class when Mr. Wahab teached us.

Any difference teaching method between Mr.Wahab and Mr. Imam. If Mr. Imam wanted us translated any reading, he always asked to us what new word we have met  on the reading. At the first time Mr. imam teached us, he gave us a article. He asked us to read it than translated it for sentence by sentence. One sentence for one student. But I thought but may be not only me but all students in the class tought that article was so long and many new word we have to met there.

But we couldn’t afraid, because the lecturer still help us to know what the meaning of this article.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 12

        

              The second time Mr. Imam taeched us. We discussed the article which we have read at the last meeting. Like the last meeting, the lecturer ordered us to translated the article sentence by sentence.

             Uniquely, if any student didn’t knew what the meaning of new word he have met the lecturer gave us to borrow his dictionary. I remembered the tittle is “ Oxford ” . I have chance to used the dictionary because the lecturer only gave me. Whe I star open the dicyionary, l less shocked because the meaning of the word on yhe dictionary used English. Oh.. I thought it same like other dictionary I ever used.

             I said with my friend that “ oh this is so nice, not all of us can use it.. how about you?” and my friend just smile to me. I knew what she have in her mind. I got so many new vocabularies. I’m so happy.

Thank you!!

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 13

Like other meeting, before studied, all students and the lecturer discussed about the condition of the day. Suddenly, the lecturer asked to us about the journal. What is journal? And he told us what the journal mean. Than he start his experience. He also informationed for us about his journal. He gave so many motivations for us. He asked us to wrote 1 sheet for 1 day. Few days later, we absolutely so many documents for ourself.

Not only this, he also teached us to review the meaning of verbs in the Microsoft Word 2007. I’m so nice when I try this and I found the meaning of the words.

Thank you so much, Sir.

SELF REFLECTIVE JOURNAL 14

            Tuesday, 13^th – 12 – 2011, is the 14^th meeting of English for Biologi with the lecturer is Mr.Imam Bachtiar. Each of the meeting with him, we were translated the article in the hand book. And he asked us one by one to translated one sentence of each paragraph. But not so difficult for me, because the hand book almost 75% I understand it. The vocabularies not so difficult and easy to understand.

            Mr. imam did the voting about our respon for the hand book. But, mean we almost choosed level 4 to understand this hand book. And then we were studied the lesson 10 abot “The humans Body”. There, we actived to raise iur hand to translated the sentence of paragraph in the article. So, every meeting, I got the new vocabulary. Thank you.

SELF RECLECTIVE JOURNAL 15

            Tuesday, 20^th – 12 – 2011 is the last meetinf for English for Biology. Before we studied, usually Mr. Imam gave the motivation for us. He wrote in the whiteboard about the wise words. There are “You will never grow unless you do something beyond you have already mastered”.

            After that, we studied the material about lesson 12 with tittle “Small but Mighty”. There, we again got the new vocabularies, such as:

·         To be used for                         = digunakan untuk

·         Used car or used book                        = mobil bekas, buku bekas

·         Plumbing                                 = membangun rumah

·         Almighty                                 = Maha Kuasa

Beside it, he also told us about his experiences when he live in Holland. And he also told us about the difference UNRAM with the university in Yogyakarta. In Yogyakarta, the students free use the bycicle to go to the around of the campus.

Based on the events above, I got so many knowledge and experiences for teached by Mr. Imam and Mr. Wahab. I’m so nice and I give 2 thumb for them. Thanks a lot for my lecturers. I will remember you.

THE PLANARIAN

            Free-living flatworms are grouped in the class Turbellaria. The most common example of these free-living flatworms is Planaria. Although most Planarians are black, brown, or grey, some species are brightly colored. Planarians range in size from less than 1 centimeter long up to 60 centimeters long. They live in ocean, in fresh water ponds and lakes, and in domp soil. A few of large Planarians live on land tropical forests. A Planarian moves ny secreting mucus from gland cells on its ventral surface. Cilia on this surface beat back and forth, moving the organism on a smooth tract of mucus. Muscle contractions help the larger Planarians move.

            A Planarian has a simpole digestive system. The mouth is located in the middle of the body on the ventral surface. A long tube , called the pharynx, can be extended from the mouth to draw in microscopic organisms. The food moves from the pharynx into the the intestine, a branched sac thatis lined with special cells.the cells produce enzymes thet digest the food. The digested food materials then diffuse to other parts of the body. Undigested food passes out of the Planarian through its mouth.

            The Planarian axcretory system regulates the amount if water in the worm. The system is made up of the series of tubes that lead to pores, or openings, on the surface of the Planarian’s body. At the internal end of each tube there is a single cell called a flame bulb. The bulb has long cilia that beat back and forth, sending water and wastes from tissue through the tube and out the pores.

            Planarians reproduce sexually and asexually. They are hermaphrodites, with each organism having both male and female reproductive organs. Planarian, however, do not  usually fertilize themselves. Instead, a pair of Planarians cross-fertilizes each other. In a two way exchange of sperm, the two worms fertilizes each other’s egg cells. The fertilized eggs in each of the two worms are then shed in capsules that contain 10 or fewer eggs. Tiny Planarians hatch in several weeks. Asexual reproduction takes place by means of fragmentation. During thiss process, a portion of the posteruor end of the body is pinch off. Each of the two parts then regenerates, or grows back, the missing  parts. The anterior grows a new posterior, and the posterior develops a new anterior.

PLANARIA

            Cacing pipih dikelompokkan ke dalam kelas Turbelaria. Contoh yang paling umum dari cacing pipih yang hidup bebas ini adalah Planaria.meskipun kebanyakan Planaria berwarna hitam, cokelat, atau abu-abu, namun beberapa spesies ada yang berwarna cerah.ukuran panjang Planaria kurang dari 1 cm sampai 60 cm. mereka hidup di lautan, di kolam air tawar dan danau, serta di tanah yang lembab. Beberapa dari populasi Planaria hidup di daratan hutan tropis. Seekor Planaria bergerak dengan mensekresikan lendir dari sel-sel kelenjar yang terletak di atas permukaan ventral. Silia (rambut getar) yang terletak di atas permukaan bergerak maju mundur, mendorong organisme di atas lapisan lender yang licin.kontraksi otot membantu Planaria yang lebih besar untuk berpindah.

            Seekor Planaria memiliki system pencernaan yang sederhana. Mulutnya terletak di bagian tengah tubuh di atas permukaan ventral. Sebuah saluran panjang yang disebut faring, dapat dijulurkan dari mulut untuk mendorong ke dalam organisme mikroskopis. Makanan bergerak dari faring menuju usus, sebuah kantung bercabang yang dihubungkan oleh sel-sel khusus. Sel-sel ini memproduksi enzim yang dapat mencerna makanan. Material-material makanan yang telah dicerna kemudian menyebar ke bagian-bagian tubuh yang lain. Makanan yang tidak dicerna dikeluarkan melalui mulut Planaria.

            System ekskresi Planaria mengatur jumlah air yang ada di dalam tubuh cacing. System ini tersusun dari serangkaian saluran yang terhubung ke poro-pori di atas permukaan tubuh Planaria. Pada akhir bagian dalam dari setiap saluran terdapat sebuah sel tunggal yang disebut bola api. Bola api ini memiliki silis (rambut getar) yang panjang yang bergerak maju mundur, mengirim air dan sisa-sisa dari jaringan melalui saluran tersebut dan keluar dari pori-pori.

            Reproduksi Planaria terjadi secara seksual dan aseksual. Mereka bersifat hermaprodit, dimana setiap individu memiliki kedua organ reproduksi jantan dan betina. Planaria, meskipun begitu, Planaria tidak dapat selalu membuahi dirinya sendiri. Justru, sepasang Planaria  melakukan perkawinan silang satu sama lain. Di dalam dua jalan pertukaran sperma, kedua cacing ini membuahi setiap sel-sel telur yang lain. Telur-telur yang telah dibuahi dari kedua cacing ini kemudian dilepaskan di dalam kapsul-kapsul yang berisi 10 telur atau kurang. Planaria-planaria kecil menetas selama beberapa minggu.reproduksi aseksual terjadi dengan cara fragmentasi. Selama proses ini berlangsung, bagian dari posterior (ekor) dari ujung tubuh menyempit. Masing-masing dari kedua bagian ini kemudian beregenerasi, atau tumbuh kembali, menggantikan bagian-bagian yang hilang. Pada anterior tumbuh sebuah posterior yang baru, dan posterior ini menghasilkan sebuah anterior yang baru.

Questions.

A.    Under your translation section, write the answer of these questions.

1.      In which class are the planarians grouped?

2.      How do planaria reproduce?

3.      What is the meaning of fragmentation? Make a picture of the asexual reproduction in planaria.

4.      What is the function of pharynx?

5.      Explain how does the planaria eat?

B.      make a list of your new words complete with meaning.

A.    Answer of the question.

1)      The Planarians are group in the class of Turbellaria.

2)      The Planarians reproduce sexually and asexually. In sexually reproductiona pair of Planarians cross-fertilizes each other. The fertilizer egg in each of the two worms are then shed in capsules that contain 10 or fewer eggs. Asexually reproduction take place by means of fragmentation. In this process a portion of body is pinch off. Each of the two parts then regenerations.

3)      Fragmentation is an asexually reproduction. In fragmentation, a portion of posterior end of the body is pinch off.

4)      The function of pharynx is draw in microscopic organism.

5)      The Planarians takes its food by extended it’s pharinx from the mouth and draw in microscopic organism, then the food moves into the intestine.

B.     List of my new words complete with the meaning

·         Mucus                                     = lender, kelenjar

·         Extended                                = terulur

·         Sac                                          = kantung

·         Flame  bulb                             = bola api

·         Beat back and forth                = bergerak maju mundur

  

THE EARTHWORMS

The body of the earthworm is darkon its dorsal surface and light  on its ventral surface. The epidermis, or skin, secretes a sybstance that forms a thin protective wall, or cuticle, around the entire body. A small lip located at the anterior and is called the prostamium. Also toward the anterior end is a swollen area, called the clitellum that is involved in reproduction. The anus is located at the posterior end.

            The earthworms move by using a combination of hair like bristles and two sets of muscles. On each of the 100 or so segments of the worm are four pairs of bristles called setae. The setae appear on the two sides and on the ventral surface of the segment. The earthworm first anchores the setae of the posterior segments on the ground. A layer of muscles, called the sircular muscles, contracts, pushing the front end, of the worm forward. The anrterior setae anchore the front end, and the rear setae let go. The longitudinal muscle contract all along the length of the earthworm and full the posterior and forward.

            Earthworms are able to eat soil as they burrow through it. The burrows they live behind not only permit air and water to enter the soil, but also break up the soil. In this way, earthworms make the soil more fertile for growing plants, and thus earthworms are beneficial to farmers.

            The interior anatomy of the earthworm is much more complex than that of planarian or other worms. Its body contains well developed digestive, reproductive, nervous, circulatory, axcretory, and respiratory system. The earthworm draws food through its mouth by means of a circular pharynx that narrows to form a tubelike esophagus. Food passes through the esophagus, end enters a thin-walled storage chamber called a crop. The food is then forced into a thick-walled muscular chamber, called the gizzard. The food is ground up by the contraction and expansion of the gizzard. The remainder of the digestive system is a long tube, called the intestine, which is the actual site of digestion. While nutrients are absorbed into the body through the intestine, undigested food is excreted through the anus and of ten left on the ground in the form of castings.

            The earthworm is a hermaphrodite that produce both sperm and egg cells ion various segments of its body. Two pairs of testes in segment 10 and 11 produce sperm. The segments are numbered from the anterior to posterior end. The testes are surrounded by saclike bodies, called seminal vesicles, that store sperm. On the same worm, a pair of small ovaries in segment 13 produce eggs. the eggs are stored in a small sac. Although it produce sperm and eggs, an earthworm cannot fertilize its eggs. Instead, it must go through a two-way cross-fertilization with another worm. When two earthworms mate, they are held together by mucus secreted by the citellium of each worm. During reproduction, sperm are carried by the sperm ducts to the male genital pore on segment 15. The two earthworms then exchange sperm cells. Travelling a short distance down a groove in the body, the sperm of each worm enter the seminal reseptacle on segments 9 and 10 of the other earthworm.

            Afew days after the cross-fertilization, the clitellum of each worm secretes a mucus ring that covers the anterior end and the clitellum. Eggs are passed through the oviduct to the female genital pore on segment 14. From there, the eggs move into the mucus ring, and the stored sperm is discharged. The mucus ring slips off the anterior end of the earthworm and seals itself, forming a cocoon. Each cocoon contains between 1 to 20 eggs that hatch into small earthworms.

CACING TANAH

            Tubuh cacing tanah gelap gulita pada sisi permukaan dorsal dan terang pada permukaan ventral. Epidermis, atau kulit mensekresikan suatu substansi yang membentuk sebuah dinding pelindung yang tipis, atau kutikula di sekeliling tubuhnya. Sebuah mulut yang kecil terletak pada anterior akhir yang disebut prostomium. Begitu juga dengan susunan anterior bagian akhir merupakan sebuah daerah yang mengembang yang disebut klitelium yang terlibat dalam proses reproduksi. Anus terletak di bagian posterior akhir.

            Cacing tanah bergerak dengan menggunakan kombinasi dari rambut seperti bulu-bulu dan dua pasang otot. Pada setiap 100 segmen atau lebih dari cacing terdapat 4 pasang bulu-bulu yang disebut setae. Setae muncul di atas dua sisi dan di atas permukaan ventral dari segmen. Cacing tanah pertama . sebuah lapisan dari otot yang disebut otot sirkular, berkontraksi, mendorong ke depan dan ke belakang yang menyebabkan tubuh cacing tanah ke depan. Setae anterior terlepas ke depan ke belakang.otot longitudinal berkontraksi sepanjang tubuh cacing tanah dan mendorong posterior ke depan dan ke belakang.

            Cacing tanah mampu memakan tanah seakan mereka memanggilnya. Pada lubang galian di mana mereka timggal di belakangnya tidak hanya melewatkan udara dan air untuk masuk ke dalam tanah, tetapi juga dapat mengemburkan tanah dengan cara ini, cacing tanah membuat tanah lebih subur untuk pertumbuhan tanaman, dan cacing tanah tentunya menguntungkan bagi petani.

            Anatomi interior dari cacing tanah lebih kompleks dari planaria atau cacing lainnya. Tubuh cacing tanah terdiri dari sistem pencernaan, sistem reproduksi, sistem saraf, sistem sirkulasi, sistem ekskresi, dan sistem respirasi yang sudah berkembang dengan baik. Cacing tanah memasukkan makanan melalui mulutnya dengan menggunakan faring sirkuler dan memasuki ruang membentuk tabung esophagus.makanan melewati esophagus dan memasuki ruang penyimpanan berdinding tipis yang disebut crop. Makana ini kemudian didorong ke dalam ruangan dengan dinding tebal, yang disebut gizzard. Makana dihancurkan dengan kontraksi dan ekspansi gizzard. Sisa dari sistem pencernaan adalah sebuah tabung panjang yang disebut usus yang merupakan tempat pencernaan sebenarnya. Sementara, nutrisi-nutrisi diserap oleh tubuh melalui usus dalam bentuk kotoran.

            Cacing tanah bersifat hermaprodit yang menghasilkan sperma dan sel telur di setiap segmen tubuhnya. Dua pasang testis pada segmen 10 dan 11 menghasilkan sperma. Segmen-segmennya terdapat mulai dari interior hingga posterior akhir. Testia-testis ini dikelilingi oleh kantung-kantung yang disebut vesikel seminalis, yang menampung sperma. Pada jenis cacing yang sama, sepasang ovarium kecil pada segmen 13 menghasilkan telur. Telur-telur ini disimpan di senuah kantung kecil. Walaupun cacing tanah dapat memproduksi sperma dan sel telur, seekor cacing tanah tidak dapat membuahi telurnya sendiri. Justru, ini harus melaluisebuah pembuahan silang dengan cacing tanah lainnya. Ketika dua cacing tanah telah dewasa, mereka saling mengikat satu sama lain dengan ledir yang dihasilkanoleh klitelium dari masing-masing cacing. Selama proses repeoduksi berlangsung, pserma dibawa oleh saluran sperma ke pori-pori kelamin jantan pada segmen 15. Kedua cacing kemudian saling bertukar sel sperma. Perjalanan jangka pendek di bawah sebuah lekukan dalam tubuh, sperma dari masing-masing cacing memasuki seminal receptacle pada segmen 9 dan 10 pada cacing lainnya.

            Beberapa hari setelah pembuahan silang, klitelium dari masing-masing cacing mensekresikan lendir yang membungkus anterior akhir dan klitelium. Telur melewati oviduk menuju pori kelamin betina pada segmen 14. Dari sinilah sel telur bergerak menuju cincin lendir, dan kantung sperma tidak terisi. Cincin lendir membuka anterior akhir dari kepompong yang mengandung antara 1 hingga 20 telur yang dierami menjadi cacing-cacing tanah kecil.

Questions.

1.       explain what is the prostomium?

2.      Explain what is the meaning of the clitellium?

3.       What is the function of the nervous system in the earthworm?

4.      Explain how do earthworms take in and digest food?

5.      How are nerve messages sent in the body of the earthworm?

6.      How do earthworms reproduce?

7.      Discuss and write up the meaning (in Indonesian) of :

a.       Secret                                                                                d. anchor

b.      Push                                                                                  e. beneficial

c.       Remainder                                                                         f. cocoon

Answer of the question.

1.      Prostomium is a small lip located at the anterior.

2.      Clitellium is a swollen area at the anterior end, which is involved in reproduction.

3.      The nervous system in the earthworm is functioned to send and processing the signal of the messages (input) that come from the environment and enter earthworm’s body.

4.      The earthworms take in the food by it’s mouth. Then, the food enters a thin-walled storage chamber through the esophagus.

5.      The erthworm has two nerve system. They are center nerve system and periphery nerve system. Center nerve system consists of two fragment of brain in the posterior and two long stalk nerves in the body. The messages comes into the body through the skin, then this messages received by long stalk nerve. This messages sent to the center of nerve system in the brain. Then, the brain or center nerve system processing this messages.

6.      Individually eartgworm is hermaphrodite organism. It mean that the earthworm produce sperm and egg cells. However, it does not mean that earthworm can fertilize itself. To make new generations, the earthworm must go through a two-ways cross fertilization with another worm. During reproduction, the worm exchange the sperm by transfer it each other. Therefore, the sperm would be fertilizing the eggs cells.

7.      a. secret           : sekresi

b. push             : dorong, mendorong

c. remainder    : sisa

d. anchor         : melepaskan

e. beneficial     : bermanfaat

f. cocoon         : kepompong

SEWAGE, SLUDE and SCUM

            More than 99% of sewage is water. Although less than one percent of sewage is the organic waste part, that part can be most offensive. However, all sewage should be regarded as dangerous.

            Sewage contains all the bacteria and viruses common to be house hold. In the event of the sickness in the family, these germs are also found in the sewage. So it is important for an individual sewage disposol system to work well.

            Discharging sewage on the ground surface is a nuisance of odors and the appearance of the surfacing septic effluent. Then too, some disease organisms may be present of the effluents that seep from the poorly working disposol field.

            An individual sewage disposol system should be use only where adequate land for the absorption of effluent is available. The subsurface soil characteristic should vapor absorption without the spoiling the groundwater or nearby wells. The uual house hold sewage disposol system consists of the septic tank and an absorpsion system for the disposol of the septic tank effluent.

            The septic tank is the simple holding compartment with a 750 to 1,000 gallon capacity. Tis incude capasity for garbage grinders and automatic washers. Some codes don’t provide for the use of these appliances. In these cases the tank size required would be fifty percents smaller.

            Flow through the tank is slow and sluggish, and for long periods no flow may occur. In the thank heavier solid settle. Lighter fats and solid greases rise to the surface and from the party submerged floating scum. The outlet of the tank is designed to prevent passage of the floating scum and settled sludge. Liquid leaving the tank lows from a depth that traps the scum and sludge in the tank. This is usually by a buffle or submerged pipe outlet.

            Within the tank, the trapped materials undergo strong forces of purification and decomposition as the result of bacteria found naturally in the sewage. So it is unnecessary to add any compounds or ingredients for this purpose.

Eventually, the tank has to be cleaned to prevent the bypass of sludge or scum that would clog the soil absorption part of the system. Three to five years intervals should be sufficient, but this can only be learned through the particular family’s experience. A new system should be cleaned after about one year and experience will then dictate the proper interval.

LIMBAH, LUMPUR DAN SAMPAH

Lebih dari 99% limbah adalah air. Meskipun kurang dari satu persen limbah adalah bagian sampah organik, bagian yang dapat menjadi yang paling ofensif. Namun, semua limbah harus dianggap sebagai hal yang berbahaya.

Limbah atau kotoran mengandung semua bakteri dan virus yang umum untuk rumah tangga. Pada saat terjadi penyakit dalam keluarga, kuman ini juga ditemukan dalam kotoran. Jadi, penting untuk sistem pembuangan limbah individu untuk bekerja dengan baik.

Pembuangan limbah pada permukaan tanah adalah suatu gangguan bau dan memunculkan efluen septik ke permukaan. Kemudian juga, beberapa organisme penyebab penyakit mungkin muncul dari limbah yang merembes dari bidang pembuangan yang bekerja kurang baik .

Sebuah sistem pembuangan limbah individu sebaiknya digunakan hanya pada lahan yang memadai untuk penyerapan efluen yang tersedia. Karakteristik tanah di bawah permukaan seharusnya menyerap uap air tanpa merusak air tanah atau sumur di dekatnya. Umumnya rumah tangga memiliki sistem pembuangan limbah yang terdiri dari tangki septik dan sistem penyerapan untuk membuang efluen dalam tangki septik.

Tangki septik adalah ruangan penampungan sederhana dengan kapasitas 750 -1.000 per galon. Ini termasuk untuk penggiling sampah dan mesin cuci otomatis. Beberapa kode tidak menyediakan penggunaan peralatan ini. Dalam hal ini ukuran tangki yang dibutuhkan akan lima puluh persen lebih kecil.

Mengalir melalui tangki berjalan lambat dan lamban, dan dalam waktu lama tidak ada aliran yang mungkin terjadi. Dalam tangki yang lebih berat padat Lemak yang lebih ringan dan pelumas padat naik ke permukaan dan sebagian dari sampah yang mengambang dan ada yang terendam. Pintu keluar tangki dirancang untuk mencegah perjalanan dari sebagian dari sampah yang mengambang dan lumpur yang menetap. Cairan meninggalkan posisi terendah tangki dari kedalaman yang memerangkap sebagian dari sampah dan lumpur di dalam tangki. Hal ini biasanya digunakan dengan penyekat atau bagian luar pipa yang terendam.

Dalam tangki, bahan yang terperangkap menjalani pemurnian dengan gaya yang kuat dan penguraian sebagai akibat dari aktivitas bakteri yang terdapat secara alami di dalam kotoran. Jadi tidak perlu untuk menambahkan senyawa atau ramuan untuk keperluan ini.

Akhirnya, tangki harus dibersihkan untuk mencegah saluran dari lumpur atau sampah yang akan menyumbat bagian tanah penyerapan sistem. Tiga sampai lima tahun selang waktu sudah cukup, tapi ini hanya bisa dipelajari melalui pengalaman keluarga tertentu. Sebuah sistem baru harus dibersihkan setelah sekitar satu tahun dan pengalaman akan menentukan selang waktu yang tepat.

Recalling Facts

1.      What portion of sewage is water?

□ a. 35%

□ b. 76%

□ c. 99%

2.      The usual household sewage disposol system includes :

□ a. a septic tank

□ b. a cesspool

□ c. several leach field

3.      The scum on the surface of the  sewage mass is composed of

□ a. organic substances

□ b. grease and fats

□ c. soluble solids

4.      The flow substances through a holding tank are usually

□ a. irreguler

□ b. rapid

□ c. slow

5.      The capacity of septic tank is not usually greater than

□ a. 50 gallons

□ b. 400 gallons

□ c. 1,000 gallons

Understanding the passage

6.      The author recomends

□ a. adding cemicals to sewage systems to facilitate purification

□ b. increasing the size of septic tanks to accommodatee washing machines

□ c. adding aby-pass disposal system to prevent overflows

7.      This article is primarily about

□ a. repairing a septic tank

□ b. constructing a sewage system

□ c. the working of sewage system

8.      Septic tankhave to be pump

□ a.drainage pipes from corroding

□ b. tanks from overfloating

□ c. soil absorption system from becoming clogged

9.      Most people have their septic system cleaned

□ a. every few years

□ b. when wastes will not drain from the home

□ c. only when a new system is installed

10.  The author stresses the importance of a functional sewage system to

□ a. prevent the neighbors from complaining about offensive odors

□ b. reduce the possibility of spreading diseases

□ c. alleviate the danger of polluting streams and rivers

THE BUTTERFLY

A butterfly is a mainly day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera. Like other holometabolous insects, the butterfly's life cycle consists of four parts: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most species are diurnal. Butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight.

Butterflies exhibit polymorphism, mimicry and aposematism. Some, like the Monarch, will migrate over long distances. Some butterflies have evolved symbiotic and parasitic relationships with social insects such as ants. Some species are pests because in their larval stages they can damage domestic crops or trees; however, some species are agents of pollination of some plants, and caterpillars of a few butterflies (e.g., Harvesters) eat harmful insects. Culturally, butterflies are a popular motif in the visual and literary arts.

Butterfly eggs are protected by a hard-ridged outer layer of shell, called the chorion. This is lined with a thin coating of wax which prevents the egg from drying out before the larva has had time to fully develop. Each egg contains a number of tiny funnel-shaped openings at one end, called micropyles; the purpose of these holes is to allow sperm to enter and fertilize the egg.

Butterfly eggs are fixed to a leaf with a special glue which hardens rapidly. As it hardens it contracts, deforming the shape of the egg. This glue is easily seen surrounding the base of every egg forming a meniscus. The nature of the glue is unknown and is a suitable subject for research. The same glue is produced by a pupa to secure the setae of the cremaster. This glue is so hard that the silk pad, to which the setae are glued, cannot be separated.

Eggs are almost invariably laid on plants. Each species of butterfly has its own hostplant range and while some species of butterfly are restricted to just one species of plant, others use a range of plant species, often including members of a common family.

The egg stage lasts a few weeks in most butterflies but eggs laid close to winter, especially in temperate regions, go through a diapause (resting) stage, and the hatching may take place only in spring. Other butterflies may lay their eggs in the spring and have them hatch in the summer. These butterflies are usually northern species, such as the Mourning Cloak (Camberwell Beauty) and the Large and Small Tortoiseshell butterflies.

KUPU-KUPU

Kupu-kupu adalah serangga yang terbang sehari-hari dari urutan Lepidoptera. Seperti serangga holometabolous yang lain, siklus hidup kupu-kupu terdiri dari empat bagian: telur , larva , pupa dan kupu-kupu dewasa. Kebanyakan spesies adaah diurnal. Pada saat kupu-kupu besar,kebanyakan sayap kupu-kupu berwarna cerah, dan mencolok, terbang berkibar-kibar.

Kupu-kupu menunjukkan polimorfisme , mimikri dan aposematism . Beberapa, seperti Monarch , akan bermigrasi jarak jauh. Beberapa kupu-kupu telah berevolusi hubungan simbiosis dan parasit dengan serangga-serangga sosial seperti semut. Beberapa spesies adalah hama karena dalam tahap larva mereka, mereka dapat merusak tanaman dalam negeri atau pohon-pohon, namun beberapa spesies adalah agen-agen penyerbukan beberapa tanaman, dan ulat dari beberapa kupu-kupu (misalnya, Harvesters ) memakan serangga berbahaya. Dalam kebudayaan, kupu-kupu adalah motif yang populer dalam seni visual dan sastra.

Telur kupu-kupu dilindungi oleh sebuah lapisan keras-bergerigi dari lapisan luar shell, yang disebut korion. bagian ini dilapisi dengan sebuah lapisan tipis dari lilin yang mencegah telur kering sebelum larva memiliki waktu untuk berkembang sepenuhnya. Setiap telur berisi sejumlah kecil berbentuk corong bukaan di salah satu ujung, disebut micropyles, tujuan lubang ini adalah untuk memungkinkan sperma untuk masuk dan membuahi sel telur.

Telur kupu-kupu ditetapkan pada daun dengan lem khusus yang mengeras dengan cepat. Karena benda ini mengeras dan berkontraksi, mendeformasi bentuk telur. Lem ini mudah dilihat di sekitar dasar setiap telur yang membentuk sebuah meniskus. Sifat alami dari lem ini tidak diketahui dan merupakan subjek yang cocok untuk penelitian. Lem yang sama diproduksi oleh pupa untuk mengamankan setae dari cremaster tersebut. Lem ini begitu keras seperti sutra, yang mana setae ini terekat, tidak bisa dipisahkan.

Telur hampir selalu diletakkan pada tanaman. Setiap spesies kupu-kupu memiliki range hostplant sendiri dan sementara beberapa spesies kupu-kupu dibatasi hanya untuk satu jenis tanaman, yang lainnya menggunakan berbagai spesies tanaman, yang kebanyakan anggota dari keluarga yang umum.

Tahap telur berlangsung beberapa minggu di dalam tubuh kupu-kupu, tetapi telur keluar menjelang musim dingin, terutama di daerah subtropis, telur keluar melalui diapause (tahap istirahat) tahap, dan penetasan dapat terjadi hanya pada musim semi. Kupu-kupu lain mungkin bertelur pada musim semi dan mereka menetas di musim panas.

THE RABBITS

Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world. There are eight different genera in the family classified as rabbits, including the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), cottontail rabbits (genus Sylvilagus; 13 species), and the Amami rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi, an endangered species on Amami Ōshima, Japan).

Rabbit habitats include meadows, woods, forests, grasslands, deserts and wetlands.^[1] Rabbits live in groups, and the best known species, the European rabbit, lives in underground burrows, or rabbit holes.

The rabbit's long ears, which can be more than 10 cm (4 in) long, are probably an adaptation for detecting predators. They have large, powerful hind legs. The two front paws have 5 toes, the extra called the dewclaw. The hind feet have 4 toes. They are plantigrade animals while at rest; however, they move around on their toes while running, assuming a more digitigrade form. Wild rabbits do not differ much in their body proportions or stance, with full, egg-shaped bodies. Their size can range anywhere from 20 cm (8 in) in length and 0.4 kg in weight to 50 cm (20 in) and more than 2 kg. The fur is most commonly long and soft, with colors such as shades of brown, gray, and buff. The tail is a little plume of brownish fur (white on top for cottontails).

Because the rabbit's epiglottis is engaged over the soft palate except when swallowing, the rabbit is an obligate nasal breather. Rabbits have two sets of incisor teeth, one behind the other. This way they can be distinguished from rodents

Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and cecum. In rabbits the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach and it along with the large intestine makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract.^[6] The unique musculature of the cecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the fibrous material is passed as feces, while the more nutritious material is encased in a mucous lining as a cecotrope. Cecotropes, sometimes called "night feces", are high in minerals, vitamins and proteins that are necessary to the rabbit's health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements; the mucous coating allows the nutrients to pass through the acidic stomach for digestion in the intestines. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.

Rabbits have a very rapid reproductive rate. The breeding season for most rabbits lasts 9 months, from February to October. Ovulation begins 10 hours after mating. After mating, the female makes a nest or burrow, and lines the nest with fur from the dewlap, flanks, and belly. This behavior also exposes the nipples enabling her to better nurse the kits. Kits are altricial, which means they are born blind, naked, and helpless. Passive immunity (immunity acquired by transfer of antibodies or sensitized lymphocytes from another animal) is acquired by kits prior to birth via placental transfer.

Due to the nutritious nature of rabbit milk kits only need to be nursed for a few minutes once or twice a day.  At 10 to 11 days after birth the baby rabbits' eyes open and they start eating on their own at around 14 days old. Although born naked, they form a soft baby coat of hair within a few days. At the age of 5 to 6 weeks the soft baby coat is replaced with a pre-adult coat. At about 6 to 8 months of age this intermediate coat is replaced by the final adult coat, which is shed twice a year thereafter.

KELINCI

Kelinci adalah mamalia kecil yang termasuk ke dalam dalam family Leporidae dari tatanan Lagomorpha, yang ditemukan di beberapa bagian dunia. Ada delapan genus yang berbeda dalam klasifikasi kelinci, termasuk kelinci Eropa (Oryctolagus cuniculus), kelinci kelinci Amerika Serikat (genus Sylvilagus; 13 spesies ), dan kelinci Amami (Pentalagus furnessi, sebuah spesies yang terancam punah di Amami Oshima , Jepang ).

Habitat kelinci meliputi padang rumput , hutan, padang pasir dan lahan basah . Kelinci hidup berkelompok, dan spesies yang dikenal terbaik adalah kelinci Eropa yang tinggal di bawah liang tanah atau lubang kelinci.

Telinga kelinci yang panjang yang lebih dari 10 cm (4 in), memungkinkannya beradaptasi untuk mendeteksi predator. Saat mereka sudah besar, mereka memiliki kaki belakang yang kuat. Kedua kaki depannya memiliki 5 jari kaki  tambahan yang disebut dewclaw. Kaki belakang mereka memiliki 4 jari kaki. Mereka hewan plantigrade saat beristirahat, namun, mereka bergerak pada jari kaki mereka saat berjalan. Ukuran mereka dapat berkisar dari 20 cm (8 in) panjang dan berat 0,4 kg sampai 50 cm (20 in) dan lebih dari 2 kg. Bulu ini paling sering panjang dan lembut, dengan warna seperti warna coklat , abu-abu , dan penggemar . Ekornya merupakan gumpalan kecil berbulu kecoklatan (putih di atas untuk cottontails ).

 Karena epiglottis kelinci bergerak di atas langit-langit lunak, kecuali saat menelan, kelinci bernafas dengan hidung . Kelinci memiliki dua set gigi insisivus, satu di belakang yang lain. Dengan cara ini mereka dapat dibedakan dari hewan pengerat.

Kelinci adalah hindgut digesters. Ini berarti bahwa sebagian besar pencernaan mereka berlangsung di usus besar dan cecum mereka. Dalam tubuh kelinci, sekum berukuran sekitar 10 kali lebih besar dari perut dan bersama dengan usus besar membentuk sekitar 40% dari saluran pencernaan kelinci. Otot-otot unik dari sekum memungkinkan saluran usus kelinci untuk memisahkan bahan berserat dari bahan lebih mudah dicerna, bahan berserat dilewatkan sebagai kotoran, sedangkan bahan yang lebih bergizi terbungkus dalam lapisan mukosa sebagai cecotrope. Cecotropes, kadang-kadang disebut "kotoran malam", yang kaya akan mineral, vitamin dan protein yang diperlukan untuk kesehatan kelinci. Kelinci memakan makanan tersebut untuk memenuhi kebutuhan gizi mereka, lapisan mukosa memungkinkan nutrisi untuk melewati lambung asam untuk pencernaan di usus. Proses ini memungkinkan kelinci untuk mengekstrak nutrisi yang dibutuhkan dari makanan mereka.

Kelinci memiliki tingkat reproduksi yang sangat cepat. Musim perkembangbiakan kelinci yang paling lama berlangsung 9 bulan, dari Februari sampai Oktober. Ovulasi dimulai 10 jam setelah perkawinan. Setelah perkawinan, kelinci betina membuat sarang atau liang, dan garis sarang dengan bulu dari dewlap itu, panggul, dan perut. Perilaku ini juga menyebabkan puting memungkinkannya untuk merawat anaknya lebih baik. Kit altricial , yang berarti mereka lahir buta, telanjang, dan tidak berdaya. Kekebalan pasif (kekebalan yang diperoleh melalui transfer antibodi atau limfosit peka dari hewan lain) diperoleh oleh kit sebelum kelahiran melalui transfer plasenta.

Karena untuk nutrisi alami dari susu kelinci kit hanya perlu dirawat selama beberapa menit sekali atau dua kali sehari. Pada saat 10 sampai 11 hari setelah lahir mata bayi kelinci terbuka dan mereka mulai makan sendiri sekitar 14 hari. Meskipun lahir telanjang, mereka membentuk mantel bayi yang lembut dari bulunya selama beberapa hari. Pada usia 5 sampai 6 minggu mantel bayi lembut diganti dengan lapisan pra-dewasa. Pada sekitar 6 sampai 8 bulan usia mantel ini  menengah digantikan oleh mantel dewasa akhir, yang berganti dua kali setahun sesudahnya.

PART  ONE

ENGLISH STRUCTURE

Task 1

5 sentennces with the formula {A}* HN

1.      Thick soft featheres

2.      Little poison insects

3.      fat yong man

4.      Big delicious mangoes

5.      Wide green leaves

Taks 2

7 sentences with formula {(Adv)A}*HN

1.      Very large green house

2.      Really strong big elephant

3.      Very small red ants

4.      Extremely dark small room

5.      Extremely dangerous wild animal

6.      very wild long snake

7.      Really nice small doll

Task 3

3  sentences with formula {Num}{(Adv)A*} HN

1.      Two very heavy big elephants

2.      three really unique funny rabbits

3.      Six very small funny cats

Task 4

8 sentences with formula {Det}{Num}{(Adv)A*} HN

1.      That three very little poison snakes

2.       Those two really big delicious mangoes

3.      Those four relatively red thorn rose

4.      That two really big wild elepants

5.      That six extremely big dangerous crocodiles

6.      Those five really big poison scorpions

7.      Those three very high big giraffes

8.      That seven extremely strong big tigers

Task 5

3 sentences with formula {Det}{Num}{(Adv)A*}{N}{HN}

1.      Those two very big high mango trees

2.      These three really rought small star fish

3.      Those four extremely great small mobile phone

Task 6

2 sentences with formula {Det}{Num}{(Adv)A*}{N}{HN}{Adj}

1.      Those two roses in the school yard on the front of biological class

2.      These twenty very thick expensive books on the table in the shop

Task 7

Underline the verb group in the following sentences and name the parts as in the above examples. i.e. the MAIN VERB and AUXILIARY verbs . the first example has been done for you.

1.      The tunnel was closed 80 years ago.

Was→ Auxiliary

Closed →Main Verb

2.      Paper is made from wood.

Is →Auxiliary

Mede → Main Verb

3.      In many countries, the environment is threatened by pollution.

Is → Auxiliary

Theartened → Main Verb

4.      Sunlight is reflected by white surfaces.

Is → Auxiliary

Reflected → Main Verb

5.      Many car engines are cooled by water.

Are → Auxiliary

Cooled → Main Verb

6.      The oxygen balance in the atmosphere is maintained by photosynthesis.

Is → Auxiliary

maintained→ Main Verb

Task 8

Underline the VERB GROUP in the following examples and name the parts in the same way as the above examples.

1.      The area of a circle can be calculated using Geometry.

Can → modals

Be → Auxiliary

Calculated → Main Verb

2.      Concrete should contain at least 12% cement.

Should → modals

Contain → Main Verb

3.      The inpurities in the water are eliminated by a filter.

Are → Auxiliary

Eliminated → Main Verb

4.      Fresh water can be distilled from sea water.

Can → modals

Be → Auxiliary

Distilled → Main Verb

5.      Modern aero planes are powered by jet engines.

Are → Auxiliary

Powered → Main Verb

6.      All books should be returned to the library by Friday.

Should→ modals

Be → Auxiliary

Returned → Main Verb

7.      Distilled water does not corrode iron.

Distilled → Main Verb

Water → HN

Does → Auxiliary

Not → Negatives

8.      Objects of different weights can be separated by a centrifuge.

Can → modals

Be → Auxiliary

Separated → Main Verb

Task 9

Using the sentences above as examples, underline and identify the parts of the VERB GROUP in the following sentences.

1.      The fumes of nitric acid should not be breathed.

Should → modals

Not → Negatives

Be →Auxiliary

Breathed → Main Verb

2.      Agriculture could not have been caused by a leak.

Could → modals                           Have been → Auxiliary

Not → negatives                           caused→ Main Verb

3.      The ship has not been raised from the sea floor.

Has →Auxiliary

Not → negatives

Been → Auxiliary

Raised → Main Verb

4.      Expensive spraying programs are not required.

Are → Auxiliary

Not → Negatives

Required→ Main Verb

5.      Malaria cannot be eradicated in rural areas.

Can → Modals

Not → Negatives

Be → Auxiliary

Eradicated → Main Verb

6.      An asteroid could not have killed the dinosaurus.

Could → Modals

Not → Negatives

Have → Auxiliary

Killed → Main Verb

Task 10

Underline VERB GROUP in the following sentences. Then identify and name the parts of the VERB GROUP, as in the above examples.

1.      Wood is usually cut with a saw.

Is → Auxiliary

Usually → adverb + frequency

2.      Oven temperatures are usually controlled by a thermostat.

Are → Auxiliary

Usually → adverb + frequency

Controlled → Main Verb

3.      Dangerous experiments should always be conducted under strict supervision.

Should → modals

Always → adverb + frequency

Be → Auxiliary

Conducted → Main Verb

4.      Difficult mathematical problems can almost always be solved using computers.

Can → modals

Almost always → adverb + frequency

Be → Auxiliary

Solved → Main Verb

5.      The hole in the ozone layer will always have to be monitored.

Will → modals

Always → adverb + frequency

Have to be → Auxiliary

Monitored → Main Verb

6.      A long thesis would not usually have been completed in such a short time.

Would → modals

Not →  negatives

Usually → adverb + frequency

Have been  → Auxiliary

Task 11

Underline the VERB GROUP in the following sentences. Then identify and name the parts of the VERB GROUP.

1.      34 % of solar radiation is directly reflected back into space.

Directly → Adv.

Reflected → Main Verb

2.      Long infared waves are readily absorbed by atmospheric.

Readily → Adv.

Absorbed → Main Verb

3.      The atmospheric temperatures of some regions are profoundly influenced by winds and ocean currents.

Prounndly → Adv.

Influenced → Main Verb

4.      The difference between analog and digital data is not always clearly understood.

Always → adverb + frequency

Clearly → Adv.

Understood → Main Verb

5.      A nuclear chain reaction takes place very rapidly.

Reaction → Main Verb

Very rapidly → Adv.

6.      Molecules in a fluid do not conduct heat very well.

Conduct → Main Verb

Very well → Adv.

PART TWO

READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY ENRICHNESS

THE LIVE OF ANIMAL

TASK 12

Questions.

A.    Under your translation section, write the answer of these questions.

1.      In which class are the planarians grouped?

2.      How do planaria reproduce?

3.      What is the meaning of fragmentation? Make a picture of the asexual reproduction in planaria.

4.      What is the function of pharynx?

5.      Explain how does the planaria eat?

B.     make a list of your new words complete with meaning

Answer of the question.

1.      The Planarians are group in the class of Turbellaria.

2.      The Planarians reproduce sexually and asexually. In sexually reproductiona pair of Planarians cross-fertilizes each other. The fertilizer egg in each of the two worms are then shed in capsules that contain 10 or fewer eggs. Asexually reproduction take place by means of fragmentation. In this process a portion of body is pinch off. Each of the two parts then regenerations.

3.      Fragmentation is an asexually reproduction. In fragmentation, a portion of posterior end of the body is pinch off.

4.      The function of pharynx is draw in microscopic organism.

5.      The Planarians takes its food by extended it’s pharinx from the mouth and draw in microscopic organism, then the food moves into the intestine.

List of my new words complete with the meaning

·         Mucus                                     = lender, kelenjar

·         Extended                                = terulur

·         Sac                                          = kantung

·         Flame  bulb                             = bola api

·         Beat back and forth                = bergerak maju mundur

TASK 13

Questions.

1.       explain what is the prostomium?

2.      Explain what is the meaning of the clitellium?

3.       What is the function of the nervous system in the earthworm?

4.      Explain how do earthworms take in and digest food?

5.      How are nerve messages sent in the body of the earthworm?

6.      How do earthworms reproduce?

7.      Discuss and write up the meaning (in Indonesian) of :

d.      Secret                                                                                d. anchor

e.       Push                                                                                  e. beneficial

f.       Remainder                                                                         f. cocoon

Answer of the question.

1.      Prostomium is a small lip located at the anterior.

2.      Clitellium is a swollen area at the anterior end, which is involved in reproduction.

3.      The nervous system in the earthworm is functioned to send and processing the signal of the messages (input) that come from the environment and enter earthworm’s body.

4.      The earthworms take in the food by it’s mouth. Then, the food enters a thin-walled storage chamber through the esophagus.

5.      The erthworm has two nerve system. They are center nerve system and periphery nerve system. Center nerve system consists of two fragment of brain in the posterior and two long stalk nerves in the body. The messages comes into the body through the skin, then this messages received by long stalk nerve. This messages sent to the center of nerve system in the brain. Then, the brain or center nerve system processing this messages.

6.      Individually eartgworm is hermaphrodite organism. It mean that the earthworm produce sperm and egg cells. However, it does not mean that earthworm can fertilize itself. To make new generations, the earthworm must go through a two-ways cross fertilization with another worm. During reproduction, the worm exchange the sperm by transfer it each other. Therefore, the sperm would be fertilizing the eggs cells.

7.      a. secret           : sekresi

b. push             : dorong, mendorong

c. remainder    : sisa

d. anchor         : melepaskan

e. beneficial     : bermanfaat

f. cocoon         : kepompong

PART 3

ORGANISMS MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY

THE LIVE OF ANIMALS

A.    HOW DOES AN AMOBA MOVE?

An amoeba moves by first putting out of pseudopodium or “false foot”. Then the rest of the animal’s body follows on behind it.

The main part of an amoeba’s body is made of grainy liqiud called endoplasm. Outside this, just inside the outer membrane, there is a thin layer of clear, jelly-like material called ectoplasm.

When an amoeba starts to move, the ectoplasm becomes liquid art a certain point the animal starts to put the pseudopodium. A stream of endoplasm moves up the center of the animal into the pseudopodium. There it spreads out and becomes firmer, adding to the ectoplasm at the sides. At the rear and the opposite happens so that the whole animal moves towards the pseudopodium.

We still do not know that causes the endoplasm to stream forward. But scientist think that the “rear” end of the animal contracts and squeezes the animal forward.

The resume of  Amoeba’s Movement

            Firstly the amoeba change the ectoplasm becomes liquid and put the pseudopodium. Secondly, a stream of endoplasm moves from center into the pseudopium. And then there it spreads out and become firmer. Moreover, it adding to ectoplasm at the side. Finally the rear and the opposite or the whole of amoeba moves towards the pseudopium.

B.     HOW DO SNAKE MOVE?

Some snakes move in a series of leaps, using a movement like a concertina. Other pass waves down their bodies and other use the scales on their bellies. Side-winding snakes move in a series of steps. On rough grounds most snakes move by passing waves of muscle movement down their bodies. Yhe waves push against stones and other objects.

On smoother ground, a snake may move in a concertina fashion. The snake draws its body up into a series of bends. Then, keeping the tail region firmly on the ground, it throws its head and bodyforwards.some snakes can move in a straight line. Waves of muscle movement pass down the snake’s belly. Side-winding snakes are usually found in a desert. They move over the sand in a series of sideways steps.

The Summary Snake’s Movement.

            There are 4 kind of snake movement type. First is concertina, it used on smoother ground. Firstly the snake draws its body up into a series of blends. And then, the tail region become firmly on the ground. Finally it throws its head and body forwards. Second is sidewinding, it used on desert. They move over the sand in a series of sideways steps. Third is serpentire, it used on rough grounds. Most snake move can move in a straight line by passing waves of muscle movement down the snake’s belly. Fourth is caterpilar (rectilinear), it used on stones area, it like as caterpillar movement.

C.    HOW DO BATS FIND THEIR WAY IN THE DARK?

 A bat does not have good eyesight, but is able to see by sound waves. It produces a series of high-pitched squeaks which are reflected back by the objects around it.

The way in which bats find their way about is called echolocation. They produce high pitched squeaks that humans cannot hear. Some bats, such as the long-eared bat on the left, produce these sounds from their mouths. Others, such as the greater horseshoe bat, on the right, produce their sound from their noses. The returning echoes are picked up by the bats large, sensitive ears.

The bats receive information about the direction, loudness, and pitch (high or low notes) of echoes returning from a flying insect. It can then work out the direction, distance, and speed of the insect with amazing accuracy.

The Summary of Bats Find Their Way in the Dark

            The bats can see by sound waves. Firstly it produces a series of high-pitched squeaks with their mouths which are reflected back by the objects around it. But others, such as the greater horseshoe bat produce their sound from their noses. And then returning echoes are picked up by the bat large, sensitive ears. And the bats receive information about the direction, loudness and pitch of echoes returning from flying insect. It can then work out the direction, distance and speed of the insect with amazing accuracy.

D.    HOW DOES A CATTERPILLAR TURN INTO A BUTTERFLY?

The amazing change from a caterpillar to a butterfly happens inside a chrysalis. The process is called mmetamorphosis, whice means “change of form”.

A caterpillar’s life is spent feeding and growing. It earts large amounts of plant material. Every so often it sheds it skin, to show a larger skin underneath.

When the it is fully grown, it finds a suitable place and attaches itself with silk threads. Then it shed it skin once more. But,  this time the new skin has a different shape and hardens into the case of the chrysalis, or pupa. Inside the pupa dramatic changes take place. Eventually, an adult butterfly appears and flies away.

The Summary of  How Das a Catterpillar Turn Into a Butterfly

            Firstly the adult butterflies put off the eggs on leave and stem of plant, from the eggs of butterfly was born caterpillars, the caterpillars always feeding and growing and its sheds it skin. Secondly, it finds a suitable place and attaches itself with silk threads. And then, it sheds the skin once more to become chrysalis or pupa. Finally, from the chrysalis was born adult butterflies and process reproduction happens again.

E.     HOW DOES A CAMEL CONSERVE WATER?

Camels are adapted to live in the desert. They save as much water as possible and they can also lose a lot of water without any bad effects.

Like all mammals, a camel has water in this body tissues. But it can lose up to 22 percent of this water without harm, while a human who has lost only 12 percent will almost certainly die. The camel can do this by losing most of the water from its body cells and very little from its blood. It looks rather scraggy, but a good drink of water brings it back to its normal appearance.

A camel’s hump contains fat. This once thought to be a source of water. But the fat is an energy reserve.

Camels do not sweat very much, and they produce only small amounts of urine these adaptations help them to survive in the desert.

The summary of Converse Water Ability of a Camel

            Firstly a camel save as much water as possible. Secondly, a camel’s hump contains fat, it changed from the water that drink by camel. And then, this once thought to be a source of water, but the fat is an energy reserve. Finally the camel doesn’t sweat very much and produce only small amounts of urine these adaptations help them to survive in the desert.

F.      HOW DO BEES MAKE HONEY?

            Bees gather nectar and pollen for food. Same of the nectar is converted into honey by the action of the bee’s saliva.

             A bee’s nest is made up of a number of vertical wax sheets, or combs. On each slide of a comb there are hundreds of small, six sided cells. Some of these are used for rearing grubs and others are uses for rearing grubs and other are used for storing food.

An adult bee uses its long proboscis to suck up nectar, which supplies it with energy. Spare nectar is taken into its “honey stomach”, brought back to the nest and stored in cells. The bee also gathers pollen, which is scrapes into two pollen baskets on its back legs. Pollen is a source of protein. It is also stored in cells and is feed to developing grubs.

Honey is also stored in cells as a winter food supply. Honey is not gathered from flowers. It is made by a bee sucking nectar into its crop. There the action of saliva changes it into honey.

The summary of Production Honey Bees

            Firstly, the bees gather nectar and pollen from flowers, it uses its long proboscis to suck up the nectar, and some nectar is converted into honey by the action off bee’s saliva. Secondly, spare nectar is taken into its “honey stomach”, and brought back to the nest and stored in cells. The pollen is also stored in cells, it is feed to developing grubs. And then, honey is also stored in cells as a food supply if bees are not gathered from flowers. It this made by a bee sucking nectar into its crop.

LESSON 11

Recalling Facts

1.      What portion of sewage is water?

□ a. 35%

□ b. 76%

□ c. 99%

2.      The usual household sewage disposol system includes :

□ a. a septic tank

□ b. a cesspool

□ c. several leach field

3.      The scum on the surface of the  sewage mass is composed of

□ a. organic substances

□ b. grease and fats

□ c. soluble solids

4.      The flow substances through a holding tank are usually

□ a. irreguler

□ b. rapid

□ c. slow

5.      The capacity of septic tank is not usually greater than

□ a. 50 gallons

□ b. 400 gallons

□ c. 1,000 gallons

Understanding the passage

6.      The author recomends

□ a. adding cemicals to sewage systems to facilitate purification

□ b. increasing the size of septic tanks to accommodatee washing machines

□ c. adding aby-pass disposal system to prevent overflows

7.      This article is primarily about

□ a. repairing a septic tank

□ b. constructing a sewage system

□ c. the working of sewage system

8.      Septic tankhave to be pump

□ a.drainage pipes from corroding

□ b. tanks from overfloating

□ c. soil absorption system from becoming clogged

9.      Most people have their septic system cleaned

□ a. every few years

□ b. when wastes will not drain from the home

□ c. only when a new system is installed

10.  The author stresses the importance of a functional sewage system to

□ a. prevent the neighbors from complaining about offensive odors

□ b. reduce the possibility of spreading diseases

□ c. alleviate the danger of polluting streams and rivers

INTRODUCTION

THE ENGLISH SENTENCE

            English has a very large vocabulary – the largest of any language. This is partly because there are many words we can use for exactly the some thing. In many cases, there is a word which comes to use from old english, a word from Latin/Greek and a word from French.

Examples:

            Rise                                                     mount                                                  ascend

            Ask                                                      question                                               interrogate

            Time                                                    age                                                       epoch

            As mentioned above, old English was used by the common people and Latin and French were used in Educational and Government. Nowadays, old English has become spoken English and the Latin/French influences can be seen in written english, especially Scientific and technical English. This is why spoken English we say “go in”, but in technical writing we should say “enter”. Other example are:

            Spoken English                       Written English

            Go out                                     exit

            Go up                                      ascend

            Go down                                 descend

            Go cross                                  traverse

            As you can see, he verbs (kata kerja) in the left column are all irregular verbs and the the verbs in the right column are all regular verbs. This difference between spoken and written English is also true for words other that nouns (kata benda). For example we use the word “big” in speaking but “large” in writing. The same is true for “little” (spoken) and “small” (written). So you will see in English there are two languages in yhe one language – one for speaking and for writing. It’s very important to remember this difference when you are learning English. it sounds very strange if we speak in written English or we write in spoken English.

MATERIAL OF ENGLISH SUBJECT

LESSON 1

Standard of competency:

·         After studying this lesson student will be able to analyze part of English sentence and construct their own sentences based on example.

Basic competenties:

1.      Identify function of each optiona elements in subject of English sentences

2.      Construct student own sentence based on example

3.      Write students own sentences based on spesific formula

4.      Distinguish the function of optional element of subject

THE SUBJECT

            In English, the other of the parts of the sentences is very important. In the next chapter, we will look at language to talk about parts of a sentences. This is very important and will help you when you begin to write more complicated sentences.

            In spoken English, the noun parts of a sentences are often simple and the verb parts are are complicated. In written English, especially in scintific/technical English, the verbs parts are often simple and the noun parts complicated. All sentences in English must contain at least one verb. The simplest sentence in English has a subject and a verb. The subject normally comes before the verb.

Examples:

1.      The boy cried (the boy is the subject, cried is the verb)

2.      The ship shank (the ship is subject, sank is the verb)

This subject + verb (S + V) combination is the minimum requirement for asentences in English. a piece of language with a SUBJECT and a VERB is called a CLAUSE. In the example above, the sentences have only one clause. Other sentences may have two or more clauses.

      The subject (noun group) in an English sentence can be very simple or very complicated. The subject of a sentences is the “doer” of an action and so must be personor thing. To “doer” is therefore a pronoun, a noun, ar a group of words based on a noun. In this chapter we will look at each of these types of noun group as subject. That is, we will look at the noun group as:

1.      A ppronoun

2.      A single noun

3.      A group of words based on a noun

TYPE 1. PRONOUN AS NOUN GROUP/SUBJECT

            As mention above, the subject in an Englishsentence can be very complicated or very simple. Perhaps the simple kind of subject is the one where the noun group consist of a pronoun such as → I, He, She, You, We, It, etc

·         I waited

·         You are lazy boy

·         She went home

·         We tried the taste

·         He conducted the experiment

·         They late calm

Sentences like these, with PRONOUN as SUBJECT are rare in scintific English. this is because scintific writing is not concerned with people but rather it is concened with things, facts, events, etc. it is more usual in scintific English to use the two types of subject which will be explained below.

TYPE 2.SINGLE NOUN AS SUBJECT/NOUN GROUP

In this type of subject/noun group, the only compulsory element is a noun. Therefore, the noun group may consist of a single noun.

.

In the following examples, the subject is underline and the head noun is indicated. Note that the head noun (HN) is the only element in the noun group. Example:

1.      Sound travels at 333 m/sec (sound is NOUN)

2.      Water solidifies at zero degrees celsius (water is HN).

TYPE 3. GROUP OF WORDS AS SUBJECT/NOUN GROUP

            The noun group may also consist of words. In such a group there is always a main or head noun as well as other words, such as numbers, adjectives, adverbs, etc. the extra words in the noun group give extra information about the noun. In simple noun groups, the extra information is placed before the head noun. In the following examples the subject is underlined.

OPTIONAL ELEMENT 1 → ADJECTIVE (A)

            Adjective give more information about the head noun (HN). They are always placed before the HN. For examples:

1.      Soft woods are cheaper than the hard wods (soft is an adjective and woods is the HN)

2.      Black surface do not reflect light well (black is an adjective and surface is the HN)

Our formula for yhe noun grooup now becomes:

            {A} HN → where the brackets { } indicate that the element is not compulsory, i.e. optional. {A} is an optionalelement ADJECTIVE, and HN is the compulsory element HEAD NOUN. Often, however we use more than one adjective in the noun group.

To account for using more than one adjectives, we must change our formula to:

{A}* HN.

Note: some sentences may containing more than one adjective.

OPTIONAL ELEMEN 2 → ADVERB (Adv)

            Adjectives in the noun group can be modified by adverbs give us more information abot adjectives. Examples:

An extremely beautiful young woman.

      Adv               A                 HN

An adverb modifies only the adjective immediately after it. Each adjective in the noun group can have one adverb, or stand alone. For example:

An extremely expensive very large light blue house

      Adv                 A       Adv    A         A         HN

Note: an Adverb in the noungroup cannot stand alone. It must be attached to Adjective. To account for these Adverb and Adjective combinations, we must once again alter our foir the noun group to:

{{Adv} A}* HN

OPTIONAL ELEMENT 3 → NUMBERS (NUM)

            Numbers and other expressions of quantity such as: many, much, a lot of, are placed before the ADVERB/ADJECTIVE element in the noun group. For example:

Two very fast electric train

Num Adv  A         HN

            Since the number element is also optional, theformula for the noun group becomes:

{Num} {{Adv} A} HN

OPTIONAL ELEMENT 4 → DETERMINERS {Det}

            Determiner consist of two types:

1.      The demonstrative pronouns → this and that, and for the plural, these and those.

2.      The definite article, the, and its plural, the.

For examples:

1.      Those two very intelligent students.

2.      The highly dangerous volatile solutions

Our formula thus becomes:

{Det} {Num} {{Adv} A*} HN

A and its plural some can also be regarded as det but cannot be used ith num.

OPTIONAL ELEMENT 5 → NOUN (N)

            Another way of including , more information in the noun group is by using

A NOUN +  NOUN (N +N) combination

            In these cases, there is still only one head noun. These combination occur very frequently in scientific English. example:

            River water                             = the water in rivers (rivers is N, water is HN)

            A petrol engine                       = an engine which uses petrol (petrol is N, engine is HN)

The formula for the noun group, thus becomes:

{Det} {Num} {{Adv} A}* HN

OPTIONAL ELEMENT 6 → ADJUNCT (Adj)

            Adding information after the HEAD NOUN is yet another way of packing more information into the noun group. We often use “of” or some other PREPOSITION in the cases. (the subjects are underlined). Example:

1.      The volume of a gas varies with its pressure

       HN---Adj---

In this example, “volume” is the head noun and “of a gas” is extra information placed after the HEAD NOUN.

2.      A micture of Nitric Acid and Hydrocholoric Acid dissolved gold

HN---------------------------Adj--------------------------

The element Adj, as mentioned above is optional but can occure more than once in the noun group. Example:

The books in the cupboard on the top self

Det     HN    -----Adj 1-----  -----Adj 2-----

In our formula, we will represent this as : {Adj}* and our formula then becomes:

            {Det} {Num} {{Adv} A}* {N} HN {Adj}

FINAL WORD ON NOUN GROUPS

            Using formula we have developed above, we can generate both very simple and very complex noun groups. Look at the example below:

            {Det} {Num} {{Adv} A}* {N} HN {Adj}

Those are 2 extremely dangerous water samples in those

            The minimal noun group that can be generated from the above table is: samples ARE…. Since HN is the only compulsory element. On other hand, the maximal noun group that can be generated is:

Those 2 extremely dangerous, highly corrosive, viscous, green water samples in those bottles on the shelf on the left at the top ARE…..

            Fortunately, extremely long noun groups are rare. However, they do occure. You should try to get used to them, especially in reading and writing. The ability to recognize the head noun in the noun group is very important. This is because, if the head noun is singular, then the verb must be singular. And the head noun is plural, then the verb must be plural. The verb must agree with the head noun. Look carefully at the following examples:

            The teacher of the student IS….

            The teacher of the students IS….

            The teachers of the student ARE….

            The teachers of the students ARE….

Wether we use “IS” or “ARE” is determined by the HEAD NOUN. It is not determined by the noun closest to the verb, i.e → student(s) in the examples above.

LESSON 2

Standart of competency:

·         After studying this lesson, student will be able to analyze part of English sentence and contruct their ownsentences based on examples.

Basic competencies:

1.      Identify function of each optional elements in subject of English sentences

2.      Construct students own sentence based on examples

3.      Write students own sentences based on specific formula

4.      Distinguish the function of optional element of subject.

THE VERBS

            As mentioned at the beginning of lesson 1, the SUBJECT or NOUN GROUP (NG) is one of the compulsory elements in a clause – the other one is the VERB GROUP (VG). The VERB GROUP (VG) in English is often very complicated.this is because it contains a lot of information, i.e. information about tense, etc. For this reason, a large part of many English courses is concerned with verbs. Similarly, in our course, we will spend a lot of time looking at the VERB GROUP.

THE VERB “BE” AND “HAVE”

            The verb “be” and “have” are so important in scientific and technical Englis that we will devote a separate chapter to each of these verbs.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERB

            Other verbs in English fall into two catehories, i.e. TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE.

            TRANSITIVE VERBS arre those verbs which can take an OBJECT.

            INTRANSITIVE VERBS are those verbs which cannot take an OBJECT.

            Sometimes the difference between TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE verbs is very clear. Some verbs, for example, can be used only TRANSITIVELY and other verbs can be used only INTRANSITIVELY. Examples:

·         Raise the scintifist raised the temperature of the solution.

·         Rise the temperature of the solution rose.

The verbs “raise” must take an OBJECT (i.e. it is always TRANSITIVE). Where as the verbs “rise” cannot take an OBJECT (i.e. it is always INTRANSITIVE). Many verbs can be either TRANSITIVE or INTRANSITIVE, they may be TRANSITIVE in one sentence and INTRANSITIVE in another. Examples:

a.       He studies hard …………………………………. INTRANS

b.      He studies every night ………………………….. INTRANS

c.       He studies his lecture notes carefully…………... TRANS

This distingtion between TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE vebs is very important because only TRANSITIVE verbs can become PASSIVE.

THIS IS THE STRUCTURE OF THE VERB GROUP

            ADVERB GROUP consist of least a MAIN VERB – this is the only compulsory element. Apart from the MAIN VERB, there may be a number of optional elements – we will look at these later in the following pages. By adding these optional elements, we can include more information in the VERB GROUP. In the following sentences, the VERB GROUP consistnof only MAIN VERB. (i.e. the MAIN VERB is underlined).

a.       This bottle contains Nitric acid. “contains” is the MAIN VERB

b.      Sea water corrodes iron. “corrodes” is the MAIN VERB

In scientific and technical English, it is very common the VERB GROUP consist only of a MAIN VERB. However, the VERB GROUP also frequently contains a number of optional elements.

OPTIONAL ELEMENTS IN THE VERB GROUP

1.      AUXILIARIES (Aux)

Auxiliaries are parts of the following verbs:

“to be”                         am, is are was, were, be, have been, being.

“to have”                     has, have, had.

“to do”                                    does, do, did.

            The function of AUXILIARY is to indicate both TENSE (present, past, future, etc.) and VOICE (ctive, passive). To indicate TENSE and VOICE, the AUXILIARIES are used in various combinations before the MAIN VERB. The verbs “to be”, “to have”, and “to do” can also be the MAIN VERB in clause. They have other roles besides being AUXILIARIES.

2.      MODALS (Mod)

            MODALSe added to VERB GROUP to added extra information to the VERB GROUP. It this stage in the course, we only want you to identify MODALS. We well look at the meaning of these MODALS at the latertime. There are three groups of MODALS in scinific English:

GROUP 1 → can, may, might, could.

            The MODALS are used to express ability and probability.

GROUP 2 → will

            In scientific English, “will” is used for making predictions are made when we are not fully certain but are fairly certain that something wil happen.

GROUP 3 → should, must, have to

            These MODALS are used to give warnings, introduction or advice.

3.      NEGATIVES (Neg)

            In NEGATIVE sentences, the word “not” is added to the first MODAL or the first AUXILIARY.

4.      ADVERBS (Adv)

There are many kinds of ADVERBS which we can use in verb group. However, in this chapter, we look at only two of them.

a.       ADVERBS of FREQUENCY

Adverbs of frequency tell us how often something occurs (active) or how often something is carried out (passive).

b.      ADVERBS of MANNER

ADVERBS of MANNER tell us how/in what manner something occurs (active) or is carried out (passive), e.g. how well, how badly, how quickly, how carefully, etc.

SELF EVALUATION

            After followed the course of English during one semester started on September 2011 and finished on January 2011, I got more knowladge and new experience that would be valuable lesson for me. Learning English at Biology Education can improve my ability to understand Biology-English article and translate this article into Indonesian well.

            Since followed this course, my English vocabulary is important by reading to articles and translate it into Indonesian. Auomatically, I opened the dictionary to found the meaning of new difficult word. From learning these articles also I could learn how to understand and how to got the point contained in a passage. It is obtained by answered the questions about the passage or articles.

            Beside that, I got the ability to translate and to understanded the articles, I also able little bit ti make sentences or short paragraph in English. although I didn’t make it well, but I always try to make a short paragraph. It is developed by making course journa of what iach course bring (self reflective journal). The activity of curse in every week must be written in a short paragraph.

            After learn to understand articles, translate yhe articles, and make a short paragraph, I also learn spoken in English. I must make a short presentation of one summary scientific journal.beside all I’ve evaluation above, I also got lesson about ethics, how the true way asked dispensation.

            My expectation for the next, I can be better than what I’ve done during this time.